Cooking

Cooking or cookery is the art, technology, science and craft of preparing food for consumption. Cooking techniques and ingredients vary widely across the world, from grilling food over an open fire to using electric stoves, to baking in various types of ovens, reflecting unique environmental, economic, and cultural traditions and trends. The ways or types of cooking also depend on the skill and type of training an individual cook has. Cooking is done both by people in their own dwellings and by professional cooks and chefs in restaurants and other food establishments. Cooking can also occur through chemical reactions without the presence of heat, such as in ceviche, a traditional South American dish where fish is cooked with the acids in lemon or lime juice.

Preparing food with heat or fire is an activity unique to humans. It may have started around 2 million years ago, though archaeological evidence for it reaches no more than 1 million years ago.

The expansion of agriculture, commerce, trade, and transportation between civilizations in different regions offered cooks many new ingredients. New inventions and technologies, such as the invention of pottery for holding and boiling water, expanded cooking techniques. Some modern cooks apply advanced scientific techniques to food preparation to further enhance the flavor of the dish served.

History:

Phylogenetic analysis suggests that human ancestors may have invented cooking as far back as 1.8 million to 2.3 million years ago. Re-analysis of burnt bone fragments and plant ashes from the Wonderwerk Cave, South Africa, has provided evidence supporting control of fire by early humans there by 1 million years ago. There is evidence that Homo erectus was cooking their food as early as 500,000 years ago. Evidence for the controlled use of fire by Homo erectus beginning some 400,000 years ago has wide scholarly support. Archaeological evidence from 300,000 years ago, in the form of ancient hearths, earth ovens, burnt animal bones, and flint, are found across Europe and the Middle East. Anthropologists think that widespread cooking fires began about 250,000 years ago, when hearths started appearing.

Recently, the earliest hearths have been reported to be at least 790,000 years old.

Historical oven baking, in a painting by Jean-François Millet, 1854

Communication between the Old World and the New World in the Columbian Exchange influenced the history of cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic, from the New World, such as potatoes, tomatoes, maize, yams, beans, bell pepper, chili pepper, vanilla, pumpkin, cassava, avocado, peanut, pecan, cashew, pineapple, blueberry, sunflower, chocolate, gourds, and squash, had a profound effect on Old World cooking. The movement of foods across the Atlantic, from the Old World, such as cattle, sheep, pigs, wheat, oats, barley, rice, apples, pears, peas, chickpeas, green beans, mustard, and carrots, similarly changed New World cooking.

In the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries, food was a classic marker of identity in Europe. In the nineteenth-century "Age of Nationalism" cuisine became a defining symbol of national identity.

The Industrial Revolution brought mass-production, mass-marketing and standardization of food. Factories processed, preserved, canned, and packaged a wide variety of foods, and processed cereals quickly became a defining feature of the American breakfast. In the 1920s, freezing methods, cafeterias and fast food restaurants emerged.

Along with changes in food, starting early in the 20th century, governments have issued nutrition guidelines, leading to the food pyramid (introduced in Sweden in 1974). The 1916 "Food For Young Children" became the first USDA guide to give specific dietary guidelines. Updated in the 1920s, these guides gave shopping suggestions for different-sized families along with a Depression Era revision which included four cost levels. In 1943, the USDA created the "Basic Seven" chart to make sure that people got the recommended nutrients. It included the first-ever Recommended Daily Allowances from the National Academy of Sciences. In 1956, the "Essentials of an Adequate Diet" brought recommendations which cut the number of groups that American school children would learn about down to four. In 1979, a guide called "Food" addressed the link between too much of certain foods and chronic diseases, but added "fats, oils, and sweets" to the four basic food groups.

Ingredients:

Carbohydrates-

Carbohydrates are the sugars, starches and fibers found in fruits, grains, vegetables and milk products. Though often maligned in trendy diets, carbohydrates one of the basic food groups are important to a healthy life.

"Carbohydrates are macronutrients, meaning they are one of the three main ways the body obtains energy, or calories," said Paige Smathers, a Utah-based registered dietitian. The American Diabetes Association notes that carbohydrates are the body's main source of energy. They are called carbohydrates because, at the chemical level, they contain carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.

Function of carbohydrates:

Carbohydrates provide fuel for the central nervous system and energy for working muscles. They also prevent protein from being used as an energy source and enable fat metabolism, according to Iowa State University.

Also, "carbohydrates are important for brain function". They are an influence on "mood, memory, etc., as well as a quick energy source." In fact, the RDA of carbohydrates is based on the amount of carbs the brain needs to function.

Fats-

Fat are an essential part of our diet and is important for good health. There are different types of fats, with some fats being healthier than others. To help make sure you stay healthy, it is important to eat unsaturated fats in small amounts as part of a balanced diet.

When eaten in large amounts, all fats, including healthy fats, can contribute to weight gain. Fat is higher in energy (kilojoules) than any other nutrient and so eating less fat overall is likely to help with weight loss.

Saturated fats-

Eating greater amounts of saturated fat is linked with an increased risk of heart disease and high blood cholesterol levels. These fats are usually solid at room temperature

Unsaturated fats-

Unsaturated fats are an important part of a healthy diet. These fats help reduce the risk of heart disease and lower cholesterol levels

Trans fats-

Trans fats are unsaturated fats that have been processed and as a result, behave like saturated fats. Eating trans fats increases the levels of ‘bad’ cholesterol and decreases the levels of ‘good’ cholesterol in the body which is a major risk factor for heart disease. It is important to lower the amounts of trans fats you eat to help you stay healthy.

Proteins-

Proteins are large molecules that our cells need to function properly. They consist of amino acids. The structure and function of our bodies depend on proteins. The regulation of the body's cells, tissues, and organs cannot happen without them.

Muscles, skin, bones, and other parts of the human body contain significant amounts of protein, including enzymes, hormones, and antibodies.

Proteins also work as neurotransmitters. Hemoglobin, a carrier of oxygen in the blood, is a protein.

Proteins are long chains of amino acids that form the basis of all life. They are like machines that make all living things, whether viruses, bacteria, butterflies, jellyfish, plants, or human function.

The human body consists of around 100 trillion cells. Each cell has thousands of different proteins. Together, these cause each cell to do its job. The proteins are like tiny machines inside the cell.

Types of protein-

Complete proteins: These foods contain all the essential amino acids. They mostly occur in animal foods, such as meat, dairy, and eggs.

Incomplete proteins: These foods contain at least one essential amino acid, so there is a lack of balance in the proteins. Plant foods, such as peas, beans, and grains mostly contain incomplete protein.

                     

Complementary proteins: These refer to two or more foods containing incomplete proteins that people can combine to supply complete protein. Examples include rice and beans or bread with peanut butter.

Water-

Water is a significant contributor to a protein's 3-D structure, and the protein controls the structuring of its surrounding water.

Water molecules play an invaluable role in governing the structure, stability, dynamics, and function of biomolecules. The hydration forces are responsible for packing and stabilization of the protein structure. Particularly, water participates in many hydrogen bond networks and screening electrostatic interactions. However, the exact range of processes mediated by water is far from being understood, and it is only in the recent years that water has been quantitatively treated as an integral component of biomolecular systems. 

Vitamins & Minerals-

Vitamins and minerals make people's bodies work properly. Although you get vitamins and minerals from the foods you eat every day, some foods have more vitamins and minerals than others.

Vitamins fall into two categories: fat soluble and water soluble. The fat-soluble vitamins -A, D, E, and K -dissolve in fat and can be stored in your body. The water-soluble vitamins - C and the B-complex vitamins (such as vitamins B6, B12, niacin, riboflavin, and folate)  need to dissolve in water before your body can absorb them. Because of this, your body can't store these vitamins. Any vitamin C or B that your body doesn't use as it passes through your system is lost (mostly when you pee). So you need a fresh supply of these vitamins every day.

Whereas vitamins are organic substances (made by plants or animals), minerals are inorganic elements that come from the soil and water and are absorbed by plants or eaten by animals. Your body needs larger amounts of some minerals, such as calcium, to grow and stay healthy. Other minerals like chromium, copper, iodine, iron, selenium, and zinc are called trace minerals because you only need very small amounts of them each day.

Vitamins and minerals boost the immune system, support normal growth and development, and help cells and organs do their jobs.

Another vitamin, vitamin K, helps blood to clot (so cuts and scrapes stop bleeding quickly).

Cooking Methods:

Dry heat Cookery Methods-

In dry heat cooking methods, the food being cooked does not use water to cook the food. The food is left dry and heat is applied to cook the food. Such methods of cooking are: baking, steaming, grilling, and roasting. When heat is applied to the food, the food cooks in its own juice or the water added to the food during its preparation evaporates during the heating process and this cooks the food. Heat is applied directly to the food by way of convection thus making the food to get cooked. The action or movement of air around the food, cooks it. Let us now have a look at each of these cooking methods

Baking-

In baking method of cooking, the food is cooked using convection heating. The food is put into an enclosed area where heat is then applied and the movement of heat within the confined space, acts on the food that make it get cooked.

Steaming-

To steam food, water is added to a pot and then a stand is placed inside the pot. The water level should be under the stand and not above it. There is no contact between the food and the water that is added to the pot. Food is then placed on the stand and heat is applied. The hot steam rising from the boiling water acts on the food and the food gets cooked. It is the hot steam that cooks the food, as there is no contact between the food and the water inside the pot. This method of cooking for vegetables is very good as the food does not lose its flavour and much of the nutrients are not lost during the cooking.

Grilling-

There are two methods of grilling that are used these days. One type of grilling is the one that is commonly used by the people in the village. This is when food is cooked over hot charcoal on an open fire. The food is placed on top of the burning charcoal. Sometimes people improvise by using wire mesh and place it over the open fire to grill fish or vegetables. The other method is using grills that are inbuilt in stoves. In this method, the griller, which has a tray, is heated up and the food is placed on the grill tray to cook. The heat can be gas-generated or electric-generated depending on the type of stove used. The food is again left to cook on the grill with the doors of the grill open. People who can afford to buy a stove would use the grilling part to grill their food. What happens in this type of cooking is the heat seals the outside part of the food and the juice inside the food cooks it. The flavour of the food is not lost and much of the nutrients are not lost either. Food is frequently turned over to prevent it from burning and to ensure that equal heating and cooking time is applied to both sides of the food. By doing this, the food is cooked evenly and thoroughly.

Roasting-

With roasting, direct heat is applied to the food. The heat seals the outside part of the food and the

juice inside the food cooks the food. Roasting is mainly used when cooking fleshy food like fish, meat or chicken. When heat is applied to the outer covering of the food, it seals it up thereby trapping all the juices inside the food. The action of direct heating, heats up the juices inside the food, which then cooks the food. Again there is very little nutrient lost and the flavour is not spoilt. Food is frequently rotated over the spit so that there is even heating applied to all parts of the food. This is so that heat is applied evenly to the food to make it get cooked properly.

Moist Heat Cookery Methods- 

In moist heat cookery methods, liquid is used as a medium to cook the food. Such medium could be water, coconut cram or oil. These liquids are added to the food before heat is applied to it or sometimes heat is applied to the liquid before the food is added into the cooking utensils to be cooked. The moist heat cookery methods include: boiling, stewing, shallow frying, deep frying, barbequing and basting. All these moist heat cooking methods use liquid to cook the food in.

Boiling-

This is the most common method of cooking and is also the simplest. With this method of cooking, enough water is added to food and it is then cooked over the fire. The action of the heated water makes the food to get cooked. The liquid is usually thrown away after the food is cooked. In the case of cooking rice, all the water is absorbed by the rice grains to make it get cooked. During the heating process, the nutrients can get lost or destroyed and the flavour can be reduced with this method of cooking. If you over cooked cabbage, all the nutrients can get lost.

Stewing-

In the process of cooking using the stewing method, food is cooked using a lot of liquid. Different kinds of vegetables are chopped, diced or cubed and added to the pot. Sometimes pieces of selected meat, fish or chicken is also chopped and added to the stew. The liquid is slightly thickened and stewed food is served in that manner. This method is also used when preparing fruits that are going to

be served as desserts. With this cooking method, every food is cooked together at the same time in one pot. The flavour, colours, shapes and textures of the different vegetables that are used, makes stewing a handy method of cooking. The only disadvantage is that some of the vegetables might be overcooked and thus the nutrient content becomes much less. It is therefore important that the vegetables that take the longest to cook to be put into the pot first and the ones that need least cooking to be put in last. In this way much of the nutrient contents of the food does not get lost.

Frying-

When food is fried using oil or solid fat it is important that you observe some rules in handling oil or fat. Simple rules to follow when frying: 1.Make sure there is enough oil or fat put in the frying pan or a deep frying pan. 2.The food to be cooked must not have water dripping from it. This is because

when water comes into contact with hot oil or fat, you will have the oil sizzling and spitting out of the pan, which could burn your skin if you are not careful. 3.Put the food into the hot oil carefully. Try not to make a big splash as the oil could burn your skin. 4.The oil of fat should be heated to the right temperature before putting food into the pan to be fried. If the food is put in when the oil or fat is not heated to the right temperature, the food will soak up the oil and you will have food that is all oily or greasy. If the oil or fat is over heated, you will end up with food that is burnt. Sometimes the food especially doughnuts will turn brown on the outside but the dough inside is uncooked. To cook food using the frying method, there are two ways of doing it. There is the shallow frying and the deep frying methods.

Shallow Frying-

In shallow frying, food is cooked in a frying pan with a little amount of oil or fat. The oil or fat is heated to the correct amount and the food is put into the heated oil. The food is turned over a few minutes or is stirred around a couple of times before it is cooked and dished out. If patties, potato chips or coated foods are fried, it is best to put a piece of brown paper or paper napkin inside the tray to soak up any oil from the food before serving it.

Deep Frying-

This is when a lot of oil or fat is used in cooking the food. The oil or fat is usually put into a deep pan and is heated to boiling point. Food is then put into the hot boiling oil and is cooked in that way. Such food as fish fingers, potato chips, meat balls, and dough nuts to name a few, are cooked using the deep frying method.

Barbequing-

The method of cooking food by barbequing is usually associated with fund raising activities, parties or picnics. It is most suitable to cooking meat cutlets, fish or chicken pieces. 

The food is usually marinated with spices and tenderizers (for meat cuts) for sometime before it is cooked. With this method of cooking, a sheet of metal with stands is heated up and oil is used to cook the food. A sufficient amount of oil is heated up and food is added. The food is then turned over a couple of times before it is dished out.

Basting-

This method of cooking is usually associated with roasting. The juice or liquid that comes out of the meat being cooked is spooned over the roast frequently while it is being roasted. The outer part of the

meat is moistened frequently during the cooking process with the juice that is being spooned over. Usually, the extra juice from the cooked meat is added to a mixture to make the meat sauce.

Health &  Safety:

Kitchen safety awareness is crucial during food preparation and cooking, as well as during clean-up and daily living. Understanding the hazards present in the kitchen can help you avoid causing an accident or subjecting your family to a bout of food poisoning.

Be Aware of  Kitchen Safety Hazards

In order to stay safe in the kitchen, it's important to understand the dangers present in this area of your home. From sharp knives to hot stoves, reading up on kitchen hazards can help you change your habits and protect your family.

Knife Safety-

Using a knife appropriately can help prevent serious injuries. To keep yourself from sustaining a knife related wound or laceration:

Always handle knives with caution.

When picking up a knife, make sure you aren't holding anything else or are distracted.

Keep your knives sharpened so you don't need to strain while chopping, slicing, or dicing.

When chopping round objects, cut one side to make it flat and then lay the flat side down on your chopping block. This way, you can stabilize whatever item you are chopping.

Grasp the knife handle firmly and lay your other hand on top of the knife to prevent any blade contact.

Using Appropriate Cooking Tools--

To keep hot items from slipping or spilling, use the right cooking utensils. Be sure to:

Use tongs to handle large, firm products. When handling hot items, grasp them firmly and be mindful of oil or water splashing.

Use tools with hand grips if you have difficulty with firmly grasping your cooking tools.

When using tools that have sharp edges for the first time, go slowly until you get the hang of it. Graters, zesters and mandolins all have the potential to slice or cut your fingers or hands if you aren't paying attention, or misuse them.

Keep utensils clean to prevent food contamination. When hand drying or putting sharp utensils away, watch where you place your hands.

Knowing How to Handle Kitchen Fires-

While kitchen fires don't impact everyone, it is important to be prepared in case one occurs. To handle grease, microwave, stove, and electrical fires:

Use a pot pan or pour baking soda over the flames to smother grease fires. Water will not work and should not be used.

For microwave, stove, or oven fires, shut the door and turn the appliance off. If it is safe, unplug the appliance and if the fire continues for several minutes, call the fire department.

With electrical fires, do not use water to extinguish them. It's best to use a fire extinguisher. Keep a small one in your kitchen if possible.

In general, always watch food that's on the stove, avoid wearing loose clothing that could catch fire, and double check that you've turned appliances off when you are done using them.

Practice Proper Food Safety-

In addition to the hazards from heat and sharp objects, the kitchen also presents safety concerns surrounding food preparation. Improper food preparation can lead to food poisoning like salmonella. Keep these tips in mind to prepare food safely for yourself and your family.

How to Cook Safely With Oils-

Many people use oils when cooking meat, poultry, and veggies. To prevent injury:

Heat oil slowly to avoid splashing, which can lead to minor burns.

When putting your food into the pot or pan, do so slowly so the oil doesn't splash.

Watch food that's on the stove or in the oven to prevent burning. If you smell something burning, turn the heat off and wait a few minutes before checking the food in case a small fire has started.

Before cleaning your pot or pan, let them cool completely and remember to use pot holders to prevent your hands from getting burned.

Extra virgin olive oil has a low smoking point so be cautious when heating this up and do so very slowly. You can also consider using coconut oil, grapeseed oil, and ghee when you are cooking at higher temperatures.

Shop Smart-

Food safety actually starts before you even get to the kitchen. At the grocery store, keep these tips in mind:

Don't buy any food that is past the expiration date.

Shop for your perishable foods last.

Do not buy meat in a torn or leaking package.

When buying meat, place it in an extra bag before putting it in your cart.

Do not buy dented or damaged cans.

Store Your Food Properly-

How you store your food is also an important part of kitchen safety. Keep these tips in mind:

Refrigerate food within one to two hours, depending on room temperature.

Keep your refrigerator temperature below 40 degrees Fahrenheit and the freezer below zero.

Wrap meat securely so it will not leak on other food and store it on a bottom shelf so it doesn't drip on other foods.

Use canned foods before the expiration dates. For home-canned food, the National Center for Home Food Preservation recommends using items within one year.

Wash Your Hands Before Preparing Food-

Always wash your hands well with soap and water before you begin preparing a meal. Over the course of the day, your hands come in contact with a variety of bacteria and viruses that can cause illness. Thoroughly washing your hands reduces your risk of spreading these diseases.

Thaw Meat Safely-

The freezer is a great way to preserve meat until you're ready to use it, but it's essential that you use the proper procedures to thaw meat safely. Otherwise, you put your family at risk for food poisoning.

Don't Cross-Contaminate Food-

Meat, fish, and poultry are more susceptible to certain food-borne pathogens, so it's important to keep these foods separate from vegetables and other items. 

Use separate, clean cutting boards for each type of food. Be sure to use plastic cutting boards that you can sanitize in the dishwasher and that are in good condition.

Sanitize other food surfaces after cutting up meat or fish. Use a weak bleach solution on countertops.

Wash your hands thoroughly after cutting meat.

Never return cooked food to the same plate you used for raw food.

Cook Foods Thoroughly-

Although a chicken breast or other dish may appear "done," it isn't always safe to eat. Testing the internal temperature of the item is a better way to check whether it's safe to consume. To use a food thermometer, insert the sharp end into the thickest portion of the meat without touching the bottom of the pan or the bones. Wait for the thermometer to give you a reading.

Specific temperatures for different types of meat:

145 degrees for lamb, beef steaks, veal, and roasts

160 degrees for egg dishes, pork, and hamburgers

165 degrees for poultry and combination dishes

Use Care When Transporting Food-

If you have to take food from one place to another, using coolers and thermoses will help keep foods at safe temperatures.

Using a cooler properly is important. Fill a cooler or ice chest with ice or ice packs to maintain a cold environment. Pack food tightly, and as soon as you arrive at your destination, place it in a refrigerator or on ice. This is important for uncooked as well as cooked meats.

Use Good Cleaning Practices-

Having a clean kitchen is an essential part of having a safe kitchen. This means using proper procedures to sanitize surfaces and take care of spills.

Sanitize Surfaces-

Wash all your countertops and tables with hot soapy water immediately before and after use. If you're cutting up meat or using eggs, sterilize the surfaces with a weak solution of bleach and water.

Don't Forget the Sink-

The kitchen sink can be a dangerous place when it comes to food-borne pathogens. Rinsing chicken breasts, scraping dirty dishes, and other tasks can deposit bacteria on this surface. When you rinse vegetables, wash dishes, or drain pasta, you can inadvertently contaminate "clean" foods and surfaces with the dirty sink water. Regularly use a cleanser with bleach to kill harmful germs.

Clean Utensils Well-

Your cooking and prep utensils also need to be thoroughly cleaned. Immediately wash knives in hot, soapy water and dry thoroughly. Don't use wooden utensils for meat dishes, since it can harm these items to go in the dishwasher. When in doubt, soak utensils in a bleach water solution to rid them of pathogens.

Use Paper Towels for Hands-

Although they aren't a "green" choice, paper towels are safer for drying your hands and cleaning up spills. Dish towels can easily become contaminated with germs. When that happens, it's too easy to spread those germs to other surfaces.

Wash Dishcloths and Sponges Regularly-

Germs can live in damp sponges and dishcloths, so it's important to clean or replace these items on a regular basis. For dishcloths, wash them in your washing machine using hot water. According to tests conducted by Good Housekeeping, soaking sponges in bleach water was the most effective way to clean them.

Prevent Illness and Accidents-

Being aware of kitchen hazards and taking care with your food handling and cleaning can help keep you and your family safe from accidents and food poisoning. Although these measures may seem time-consuming, they can prevent illness and accidents and put your mind at ease.

Home-cooking and commercial cooking:

Home cooking has traditionally been a process carried out informally in a home or around a communal fire, and can be enjoyed by all members of the family, although in many cultures women bear primary responsibility. Cooking is also often carried out outside of personal quarters, for example at restaurants, or schools. Bakeries were one of the earliest forms of cooking outside the home, and bakeries in the past often offered the cooking of pots of food provided by their customers as an additional service. In the present day, factory food preparation has become common, with many "ready-to-eat" foods being prepared and cooked in factories and home cooks using a mixture of scratch made, and factory made foods together to make a meal. The nutritional value of including more commercially prepared foods has been found to be inferior to home-made foods. Home-cooked meals tend to be healthier with fewer calories, and less saturated fat, cholesterol and sodium on a per calorie basis while providing more fiber, calcium, and iron. The ingredients are also directly sourced, so there is control over authenticity, taste, and nutritional value. The superior nutritional quality of home-cooking could therefore play a role in preventing chronic disease. Cohort studies following the elderly over 10 years show that adults who cook their own meals have significantly lower mortality, even when controlling for confounding variables.

                         

"Home-cooking" may be associated with comfort food, and some commercially produced foods are presented through advertising or packaging as having been "home-cooked", regardless of their actual origin.